These data are part of a larger controlled trial to evaluate a culturally grounded, strength-focused, family-based program to prevent ACEs. The current study used baseline data before any programming occurred. The project took place in a small-sized city in the Northern Great Plains region of the United States, adjacent to several large, highly impoverished, and rural Indian Reservations. Youths and their caregivers participated. To be eligible: (a) youth had to be aged 10 to 14, and (b) identify as either indigenous and/or from a family living below the poverty line as determined by a series of screener questions (e.g., “Does your family receive SNAP [monthly funds for low-income families in the U.S. to buy food], this is like food stamps?” “Are there times when your family feels like there is not enough money for things like clothes or food?”). Participating adults had to be the caregiver of youth that met those same criteria. Caregivers were broadly defined and could be parents, grandparents, aunts/uncles, or anyone else who is the adult who takes care of the child participating in the program. In the current paper, we only include women who identify as indigenous/Lakota given the focus on connection to indigenous/Lakota culture. Further, in the current paper, we excluded the 12 men given that IPA is a highly gendered phenomenon (Hamby, 2016; Laskey et al., 2019), and the small sample size of men limited power to conduct moderation analyses.

Participants were 44 indigenous women in a relationship at the time of the baseline survey. Participants were also caregivers, broadly defined and could be parents, grandparents, aunts/uncles, or anyone else who is the adult who takes care of the child participating in the program. We excluded all women who were not in a relationship since the IPA items would not be relevant. The mean age of caregivers was 38.8 years (SD = 9.4; range 29–74). All caregivers were indigenous, but one (2.2%) also identified as White, two (4.3%) identified as Black, and eight (17.4%) identified as Latinx. Two (4.4%) identified as a sexual minority (bisexual specifically). Nearly half (43.5%) reported that their annual family income was under $10,000, 19.6% reported that their annual family income was $10,001 to $20,000, 13.0% reported that their annual family income was $20,001 to $30,000, and 23.9% reported that their annual family income was more than $30,001.

A variety of recruitment methods were used in the current project. First, we posted recruitment ads on Facebook and boosted them so that individuals in the city and surrounding areas would see the ad. The social media ads reached over 30,000 people and received more than 4,000 likes, comments, shares, and clicks. Second, we knocked on approximately 200 doors in key neighborhoods. Our population included indigenous youth aged 10 to 14 and their relatives and/or from a family living below the poverty line. Neighborhoods with our target population were identified using publicly available census data coupled with income guidelines as well as knowledge of indigenous staff immersed in the community. Third, we set up tables outside of stores and shared information about the study with people coming and going from the stores. We also attended approximately 10 events frequented by families, such as holiday and cultural events. Fourth, we held recruitment events such as a chili dog feed, where families could stop by for a meal and information about the project. Fifth, we posted fliers in community centers and businesses. Sixth, we asked community partners such as the local domestic abuse programs, after-school programs, and other youth-serving organizations to distribute fliers and tell eligible families about the project. Seventh, staff used their knowledge of the community to recruit families less likely to be reached by other methods described above (e.g., families without houses or transient families). Families enrolled in the project also told other families about the project (i.e., snowball sampling).

Interested families contacted the project team for a screening call, and those who were eligible then met a project staff to complete consent/assent. Written consent was gathered from all relatives for their own participation. Legal guardians (usually the same caregiver who completed their own survey) consented for their youth to participate, and youths provided written assent. Legal guardians also provided consent for other relatives to participate in programming sessions with their youth when applicable. After consenting, relatives completed a baseline survey. All surveys were conducted on paper and administered by trained research assistants or project managers. Surveys were completed at the location of the program (a local church), at the project office, or on rare occasions when transportation was prohibitive, at relatives’ homes. Surveys were double entered by research assistants to ensure accuracy.

Relatives were compensated with $30 for the baseline survey (from where these data are drawn). Confidentiality was ensured via a Certificate of Confidentiality from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (funding organization), and the study was approved by the IRB as well as the Great Plains Indian Health Service IRB. The publication of this paper was approved by the indigenous Advisory Board and the Indian Health Services IRB.

Regarding Aim 1, descriptive statistics were calculated to document the past 6-month incidence rates of IPAV and ADAP. Regarding Aim 2, we computed point biserial correlations. For the association between IPAV and ADAP, we conducted a Chi-square. Given the small sample and exploratory nature of this study, we used p < .10 to indicate significance (Cohen, 1992).

As displayed in Table 1, consistent with hypotheses, most women reported that they experienced IPAV in the past 6 months, with the most common type of victimization being psychological IPAV, although one in four women reported recent physical IPAV and nearly one in five women reported a recent sexual assault by a partner. Further, most women reported ADP, most commonly psychological ADP. Whereas nearly one in five reported physical ADP in the past 6 months, women’s sexual ADP was rare.

As displayed in Table 2, IPAV and ADP were strongly related, X² (1) = 25.53, p < .001. Moreover, IPAV was positively correlated with ACEs, harsh parenting, and depressive symptoms. IPAV was negatively correlated with age, income, indigenous cultural identity, and social support. ADP was positively correlated with ACEs, harsh parenting, and depressive symptoms. ADP was negatively correlated with age and income. ADP was not correlated with indigenous cultural identity and social support.

Several limitations should be noted. First the sample is small and limited to one geographic region. Although we did not measure tribal affiliation, it is likely that that vast majority were either Oglala Lakota or Sicangu Lakota. There are over 570 federally recognized indigenous tribes, among which there is vast heterogeneity. Thus, the extent to which these findings apply to other indigenous communities is unknown. Future research is needed to replicate and extend these findings to other tribal communities. Data were also cross-sectional, and we used bivariate correlations; thus the directionality and temporal sequencing of variables is unknown. We were also not able to examine associations between variables while controlling for others. Further, data were self-report, which introduces potential issues with recall bias and social desirability. Future research that is prospective, longitudinal, and multiformat is thus needed. There are also other likely important correlates (e.g., alcohol use, positive coping) and contexts (partner/family dynamics) of IPA among indigenous female caregivers that we did not measure that should be included in future research. Further, we did not assess motives for women’s use of ADP, which may have included self-defense. Finally, we assessed IPA during the past 6 months rather than longer periods of time and thus do not have a more complete understanding of female caregivers’ experiences with IPA over the life course.

Notwithstanding limitations, these data have critically important implications for practice and policy. First, these data highlight the need for initiatives that enhance indigenous cultural identity and social support among indigenous caregivers to reduce the risk for IPA. These types of efforts may also reduce harsh parenting and maternal depression, which may ultimately help to break the intergenerational transmission of ACE. Indeed, there is a growing focus in the prevention and intervention science literature on the importance of culturally grounded initiatives for indigenous populations (Bassett et al., 2012; Brown et al., 2016; Whitesell, 2017). Most of this work, however, has focused on suicide prevention and substance abuse prevention. Far less research has focused on the prevention of IPA and abuse of children and other ACEs. Initiatives—such as family-based, strengths-focused, culturally grounded programs—are needed that seek to revitalize language, traditional practices and belief systems, and active reciprocal kinship with one’s tribal community and homelands (Hawk Wing, 2022; Iron Cloud Two Dogs, 2022; Marshall, 2002). Efforts that target lower income indigenous women caregivers and younger indigenous women caregivers may be especially needed given the inverse associations between IPA and age and IPA and income although all indigenous relatives should be provided access to such interventions. These interventions should be Indigenous-led (Brown & Strega, 2005; Olson-Pitawanakwat & Baskin, 2021) and available to indigenous peoples both on reservations and in urban settings; urban indigenous peoples often report the greatest disconnect from their Native cultures (Haozous et al., 2021). While efforts targeting indigenous people are critically important, so too are macro-level interventions that dismantle systems of oppression (e.g., structural racism, structural poverty). By doing so, we likely will see reductions in IPA among indigenous populations.