Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a preventable public health problem. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2022), CSA refers to the involvement of a child under the age of 18 years in sexual activity that violates the laws or social taboos of society and that the child does not fully comprehend and does not or cannot consent to. Technology-facilitated CSA (TF-CSA) refers to the sexual abuse of a child under the age of 18 years that occurs partly or entirely through electronic forms of communication and interaction, such as SMS texting, e-mail, photographs, social media, online chat, online streaming, or internet-based video gaming platforms (Hamilton-Giachritsis et al., 2017; May-Chahal & Palmer, 2018). Common elements of CSA, which include grooming (i.e., befriending and preparing a minor for abuse), sexual solicitation (i.e., adults engaging in sexual conversation with minors), “sextortion” (i.e., blackmailing minors into engaging in sexual acts), and generation and distribution of child sexual abuse material (i.e., “child pornography”; see Chauviré-Geib & Fegert, 2023), can each be perpetrated via these electronic communication technologies (e.g., social media, texting). Therefore, TF-CSA has garnered interest in the research literature (Hamilton-Giachritsis et al., 2017; May-Chahal & Palmer, 2018).

Research indicates TF-CSA produces similar emotional, psychological, and behavioral outcomes relative to in-person CSA, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress symptoms, self-harm, and inability to trust others (Hamilton-Giachritsis et al., 2020). TF-CSA may be accelerated by major advances in technology (e.g., Drejer et al., 2023) and the COVID-19 pandemic that necessitated the use of online communication platforms (Harris et al., 2021). In a global survey of youth with internet access, 54% reported experiencing at least one online sexual harm, defined as being asked to engage in sexual acts, being sent sexual photos or media, or being asked to keep online sexual behaviors a secret (WePROTECT Global Alliance, 2021). Although girls (57%) were most at risk in the survey, nearly half of boys (48%) reported experiencing sexual harm. Certain groups of youth may be at higher risk for TF-CSA, including youth who have experienced other forms of abuse (Helweg-Larsen et al., 2012; Mitchell et al., 2007; Wells & Mitchell, 2008) and youth who have been exposed to family alcohol abuse (Helweg-Larsen et al., 2012), as these youth may be more isolated, feel misunderstood, and lack parental guidance. Youth with disabilities (Normand & Sallafranque-St-Louis, 2016) and youth who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning (LGBTQ+; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Helweg-Larsen et al., 2012; May-Chahal & Palmer, 2018) are more likely to seek out relationships online and may be targeted due to their identities. LGBTQ+ youth are especially at risk for sextortion, as others may threaten to “out” them to family or friends (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021). Additionally, youth experiencing homelessness may experience high rates of TF-CSA related to using social media to advertise sexual services in exchange for basic needs (May-Chahal & Palmer, 2018). Older youth (i.e., teenagers) tend to experience high rates of TF-CSA when adults take advantage of their curiosity about sex and romantic relationships (Wurtele & Kenny, 2016).

Millions of children in the United States participate in youth-serving organizations (YSOs), which include civic, educational, religious, sports, and other organizations that provide services to children, adolescents, and young adults (Assini-Meytin et al., 2021). YSOs can serve a critical role in preventing TF-CSA within their organizations through the implementation of best practices for prevention, detection, and response. The prevention of TF-CSA within YSOs has received little attention in the literature (Hamilton-Giachritsis et al., 2020), although prevention may be informed by efforts to prevent in-person CSA. A 2007 report from the CDC (Saul & Audage, 2007) suggested policies and procedures to prevent in-person CSA in YSOs including staff/volunteer screening, guidelines on interactions between individuals, monitoring behaviors, ensuring safe environments, responding to inappropriate behaviors, and prevention trainings for staff/volunteers, caregivers, and youth. Although the National Principles for Child Safe Organizations (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2018) suggested creating inclusive environments for youth from groups at inequitable risk of CSA, there remains a dearth of research on how YSOs can protect these groups from CSA exposure. Both resources suggest prevention practices that, while they have not been evaluated, are widely in use at YSOs to address in-person CSA (e.g., Praesidium, 2023) and may provide a basis for preventing TF-CSA.

Understanding the kinds of practices currently implemented in YSOs is a necessary first step to creating, implementing, and evaluating evidence-based guidelines for the prevention of TF-CSA in YSOs. In addition, given the inequitable burden of CSA experienced by some communities and populations (e.g., youth with disabilities, LGBTQ+ youth), research is needed to understand how practices may protect disproportionately burdened populations of youth while participating in YSO activities. The purpose of this study was to conduct a review of documented policies and practices to prevent TF-CSA collected from US-based national and local YSOs. Prevention practices documented in YSO policies are described, existing prevention practices are aligned with literature on TF-CSA prevention with special attention to protecting groups at risk for TF-CSA, and gaps are identified to inform future research and practice.

The following common TF-CSA prevention strategies were abstracted from the YSO document analysis: 1) transparent electronic communication between youth and YSO staff; 2) codes of conduct and agreed upon online behavior related to youth; 3) monitoring the YSO’s online presence; 4) parental controls for youth online activity; 5) safety behaviors for online activity for staff, parents, and youth; 6) parent and youth trainings for youth online engagement and prevention of TF-CSA; and 7) practices to address staff policy violations. Please note that because many of the YSOs in this study have their documents posted online, we chose not to include any quotations that lead back to the YSO’s Web site when entered into a search engine so as to protect confidentiality.

The current study focused on common policies and practices to prevent TF-CSA within a sample of US-based YSOs. Similar to other studies (Ettekal & Agans, 2020; Garst et al., 2021), the documents were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic when many YSOs had begun to adapt in-person programs to online spaces. YSOs created codes of conduct specific to electronic forms of communication and interaction and extended existing in-person CSA prevention practices to online spaces. For example, the practice of including an additional adult for all online communication was commonly used to supervise interactions between adults and youth in person. YSOs also required parental permission for youth participation in online activities, as they would for an overnight trip. These policies described use of safety features to control online access to youth engaged in their organization and kept a controlled online presence with official organizational online profiles and safety policies that extended to staff’s personal online profiles and communications. YSOs also relied on trainings to educate staff/volunteers on the use of new and evolving online technologies, including use of safety features (e.g., turning off chat, removing uninvited participants in a conference call) of popular online platforms. Further, both parents and youth received trainings from YSOs on the risks of online communication. Finally, YSOs described the consequences of staff and volunteers’ policy and procedure violations, including reporting and disciplinary actions equivalent to those for in-person violations.

It is important to note that the majority of these practices have not been evaluated for effectiveness in preventing TF-CSA, and they may have originated from either adaptation of an in-person prevention practice or expert opinion. However, the extension of in-person policies and practices to online spaces may not be apparent, feasible, or practical for all YSOs to implement. For example, it is less feasible to create a secure environment on social media platforms, the design of which YSOs do not control, or monitor behavior of youth on these platforms (e.g., when they have access to private messaging). Future research could help evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of the TF-CSA prevention practices identified in this study.

Most YSOs established codes of conduct for staff and volunteers specific to electronic communications, with specific behaviors prohibited such as messaging or friending youth on personal devices or social media accounts. Although not currently evaluated in the literature, these codes of conduct may reduce opportunities to engage in CSA (Wurtele & Kenny, 2016), as there is a growing trend of CSA cases in which adults contact and groom youth primarily via private messaging, texting, and social media (Darling & Hackett, 2020; Jaffe et al., 2013). However, prior studies found that people who commit TF-CSA know such codes of conduct exist and either ignore or work around them, thereby minimizing their effectiveness (e.g., Darling et al., 2018). Research from school settings suggests that poor understanding and awareness of policies, as well as inconsistent enforcement, can be barriers to the effective implementation of sexual misconduct policies (Grant & Heinecke, 2019). To maximize impact, YSOs could work to overcome these barriers and monitor the implementation and effectiveness of policies to prevent TF-CSA (CDC, 2021). Effective implementation and enforcement are also important to address health equity and ensure that policies are effective at preventing TF-CSA across youth populations at increased risk for violence (Baumann & Cabassa, 2020; Brownson et al., 2021; Hall et al., 2016). Resources are available for improving policy implementation, including education for organizations impacted by a policy, processes to change operations and systems to support a new policy, and ways to monitor a policy to increase the likelihood of achieving intended outcomes (CDC, 2021).

Many YSOs participating in this study documented policies and practices using security features of online platforms to limit access to youth by strangers (e.g., preventing unauthorized access in online webinars) and YSO staff/volunteers (e.g., restricting communication with youth to official accounts). YSOs also extended the popular “rule of three” or “two-deep leadership” often used during in-person CSA prevention (Wurtele, 2012) to online spaces. The “rule of three” requires a third adult (often a parent) be copied on each communication between adults and youth, making these communications observable and interruptible. Although this strategy has not been evaluated for effectiveness for the prevention of in-person CSA or TF-CSA, it is widely used for in-person CSA prevention based on expert opinion (e.g., Saul & Audage, 2007). However, the “rule of three” may not be ideal in YSOs whose model is based on one-on-one interactions between adults and youth (Letourneau et al., 2020). Additionally, supportive one-on-one coaching or mentoring relationships can be vital for stigmatized groups such as LGBTQ+ youth (Johnson & Gastic, 2015). YSOs may need to develop additional strategies to ensure the safety of relationships involving online communication. Future research is needed to examine the effectiveness of “rule of three” policies and to explore strategies for ensuring safe, nurturing one-on-one mentoring experiences online, as well as supporting youth from diverse sexual and gender groups in finding and building safe and healthy relationships virtually.

The documents in this study described trainings for staff, parents, and youth about online safety and potential harms. Training is the most commonly recommended approach to prevent in-person CSA by experts (Kaufman et al., 2019), and trainings for parents containing accurate, up-to-date information have demonstrated some success preventing precursors to online violence against children (e.g., cyberbullying; World Health Organization (WHO), 2022). Among 25 training documents reviewed, there was a consistent emphasis on teaching parents the behaviors and potential risks of strangers who youth could meet online. However, most online harms toward youth are perpetrated by someone they meet in person, and education that leans into the “stranger danger” narrative can be misleading and potentially increase risk for TF-CSA (WHO, 2022; Wurtele & Kenny, 2016). Evidence-based trainings that are updated frequently to align with advancements in technology and address potential of abuse by acquaintances may be effective at preventing TF-CSA.

There is evidence supporting youth training approaches in preventing online violence against youth, including online sexual behavior and cyberbullying (WHO, 2022). However, injunctions such as “don’t talk to strangers” or “don’t give out personal information” may be unrealistic, as many online activities involve these actions, and youth are unlikely to follow such rules. Instead, the WHO recommends educating youth about appropriate and inappropriate online behaviors from acquaintances and strangers, and ways to respond to inappropriate behaviors such as assertiveness and boundary setting. Such trainings provide flexibility to accommodate changing technologies, as such skills can be applied across platforms or when there are changes in features. However, caution is warranted when trainings place the onus of avoiding violence on minors. This may lead to minors feeling they are to blame for their own abuse (Beckett et al., 2019).

Finally, the reviewed documents had little mention of online problematic youth sexual behavior toward other youth. According to youth self-report, problematic sexual behavior from other youth accounts for approximately 70% of harmful sexual behavior experienced by girls and 77% of harmful sexual behavior experienced by boys (Gewirtz-Meydan & Finkelhor, 2020). Recent increasing trends in electronic communications – such as nonconsensual sexting (Doyle et al., 2021), sexual cyberbullying (Ehman & Gross, 2019), self-generated nude images of minors (Slane et al., 2021), nonconsensual pornography (i.e., revenge porn, or the non-consensual posting online of nude photographs that had originally been shared consensually; Kamal & Newman, 2016) – created new avenues for harm to occur. Effective trainings on boundaries, consent, and age-appropriate and inclusive sexual education can help youth understand which behaviors are inappropriate to engage in with other youth (Assini-Meytin et al., 2020; Letourneau et al., 2017). Further, some may benefit from learning the risks of common problematic youth behaviors such as nonconsensual sexting, self-generated nude photos of minors, and nonconsensual pornography.

While documents describing specific procedures for responding to allegations of misconduct and reporting to authorities fell outside the scope of this review (i.e., no discussion of electronic communication or online behavior), having clear guidelines for such procedures is considered important to preventing all forms of CSA in YSOs (e.g., Saul & Audage, 2007). Although holding those who engage in CSA behaviors accountable is important, punishment after the fact does not address primary prevention. Research in schools indicated that punitive or zero-tolerance policies for youth behaviors such as bullying (Day et al., 2016) or problematic youth sexual behavior (Kelley et al., 2019) were ineffective and counterproductive at prevention and could even increase mental and physical health disparities among certain groups of youth, such as Black youth (Duarte et al., 2023). Emerging research suggests harsh policies could also be counter-productive for TF-CSA prevention, including sexting behavior (e.g., Lemke & Rogers, 2020). Research suggests enacting harsh legal sanctions/sentencing, severe punishment, and poor prison conditions for criminal acts among adults may be ineffective at preventing recidivism and limited in promoting desistance future acts of CSA (Agan et al., 2021; Drago et al., 2011; Estelle & Phillips, 2018; Rose, 2021) and may increase inequities by disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups (Rose, 2021). Policies to hold those who engage in CSA behaviors accountable might work best if paired with policies intended to prevent CSA before it occurs. For example, the enactment of supportive policies promoting healthy behavioral interactions both in person and online (Duarte et al., 2023) may be effective in preventing TF-CSA before it happens and less likely to increase inequities especially among stigmatized groups of youth such as Black youth (Lorenc et al., 2013). Notably, no documents reviewed addressed ways to create supportive environments for youth who desire to express their sexuality while online and ask questions about sexual health. Finally, research is needed to develop policies to prevent TF-CSA before it occurs, rather than relying on punitive policies after the fact.

Many YSOs serve groups of youth who experience stigma and discrimination online and in-person or who are otherwise at higher risk of TF-CSA. While the documents included in this study mentioned the inequitable risk faced by transgender youth, sexual minority youth, and youth with disabilities while interacting with others online, specific practices to protect these youth were not mentioned in the documents. This does not necessarily imply that YSOs have not established such policies for implementation. Research suggests that practices can be designed to be culturally appropriate to specific communities (Sawrikar, 2020). Staff/volunteers and parents can be trained to understand the unique risks and protective factors for groups experiencing racism, sexism, transphobia, homophobia, or other systems of oppression (e.g., Bowman et al., 2010), and to understand their own biases that may affect how they respond to youth problematic online sexual behavior (Letourneau et al., 2020) that has the potential to lead to TF-CSA behavior. In order to put the primary responsibility for preventing TF-CSA in the hands of adults rather than focusing solely on children, programs can focus on educating staff/volunteers on the dangers of online sextortion. Additionally, the policies in this study focused on individual risk, rather than reducing community or society level risk. Developing policies to address risks at a community or society level can help to prevent TF-CSA for youth at disproportionate risk.

There are several limitations to this study, which examined excerpts from documents provided by 13 YSOs. No information was provided by YSOs on how specific in-person or TF-CSA prevention policies and practices were implemented, and there was no way to determine if these policies or practices were effective in preventing CSA. Second, although original documents were used to clarify ambiguity and provide additional context, excerpts of text from YSO documents were not coded within the context of the full original document. Third, policies with the potential to prevent or reduce TF-CSA that did not specifically mention online behavior may not have been coded and included in this study. For example, a subset of participating YSOs provided services and engaged with populations of youth experiencing inequitable risk of TF-CSA, including youth with disabilities and those experiencing homelessness. Although few excerpts in the documents explicitly described protecting youth experiencing inequitable risk of TF-CSA, the overarching policies may have been designed to protect such youth by default. Finally, although we examined a range of YSOs, including large national and small local YSOs, the findings in this sample may not generalize to all YSOs in the United States.

The findings of this study provide a snapshot of current policies and procedures to prevent TF-CSA among diverse US-based YSOs. Many of the YSOs extended existing in-person CSA prevention strategies to online spaces and developed trainings and codes of conduct to prevent TF-CSA. However, there continues to be a dearth of evidence of the effectiveness of these strategies in preventing and reducing TF-CSA. In addition, research is needed to understand and prevent new risks unique to the online space, such as nonconsensual sexting, sextortion, self-generated nude images of minors and nonconsensual pornography. Finally, there is also a need for research that examines the effect of community level or society level risks on the prevention of TF-CSA in YSOs. CSA is preventable, and there are ongoing efforts to increase understanding of risk and protective factors for CSA perpetration and victimization, and to develop and evaluate prevention policies and practices for the primary prevention of CSA (CDC, 2022). CDC has developed resources for action to help states, communities, and YSOs use the best available evidence to prevent child abuse and neglect (Fortson et al., 2016), sexual violence (Basile et al., 2016) and adverse childhood experiences (CDC, 2019). The findings of this study can inform YSOs as they endeavor to prevent TF-CSA within their organizations.