Electronic waste (e-waste) is believed to be one of the most rapidly increasing components of the global waste stream [1]. The increase in e-waste has been fuelled by the increase in obsolescence and the desire to keep up with global advancement in technology. Large volumes of e-waste are legally and illegally dumped in developing countries such as Ghana where they are recycled as a form of livelihood [1–3]. Recycling of valuable metals including gold or copper contained in e-waste (e.g., discarded cell phones, computers, televisions, refrigerators, and automobiles) has become an important source of income, largely in the informal sector of emerging/developing or less-industrialized nations. These countries often lack the technical know-how and technological infrastructure to recycle e-waste in an ecologically safe and sustainable manner and this poses serious public health and environmental concerns. Informal e-waste recycling and scrap metal recovery consists primarily of scavenging and collecting e-waste items, sorting out items that can be reused or repaired and manual dismantling of items that are irreparable and/or non-functional [4,5]. The recycling process is carried out by low-wage, low skilled workers who are largely unaware about the associated exposure risks or about safe work practices to prevent or mitigate related adverse effects [1,2,6].

Agbogbloshie in Accra Ghana is one of the major e-waste recycling hubs in the world [7]. The recycling processes used at this site are predominantly manual and simple. Basic tools such as hammer and screw drivers are used for breaking apart (dismantling) electrical items to retrieve valuable metals such as copper, aluminium, silver and gold [2,3]. Open air burning, especially of insulated wires, is used to recover copper, iron and aluminium from items that cannot be dismantled [4]. Non-valuable fractions of e-waste are discarded at the dumpsite and subsequently burnt to reduce the volume of waste accumulated [8].

The informal recycling process consists of the use of rudimentary methods which are hazardous and poses huge safety risks to workers and the environment [6,9–11]. A defining characteristic of workers in informal sectors is that they are not subject to national labor laws and standards. As a result, these workers are likely exposed to hazardous work conditions, including high levels of toxic chemicals with little or no social, economic or occupational protections. For the estimated two billion informal sector workers around the globe, there is a clear need for identifying and implementing the appropriate context-specific interventions in challenging work environments where unprotected workers face substantial risk from hazardous exposures and work conditions.

The objectives of this paper are to: (1) highlight some of the adverse health consequence of fast-growing e-waste in the global waste stream by showcasing such conditions at Agbogbloshie – the largest e-waste dumpsite in Africa, and (2) call attention to the need for continued research, including by the ergonomics community, to characterize and reduce work exposures and promote worker health and safety measures associated with informal e-waste recycling in emerging/developing economies.

A preliminary investigation of the processes involved in manual e-waste recycling at Agbogbloshie and the associated ergonomic risk factors revealed that, self-reported sitting, standing, walking and manual material handling such as carrying, lifting and pushing/pulling of collecting carts were performed at varied frequency and intensity among e-waste workers [3,15]. Lifting and carrying activities were performed on five or more days in the workweek by dismantlers (60%) as well as collectors and burners (nearly 90%). Prolonged walking, sitting and standing was frequently reported by collectors (87%), dismantlers (82%) and burners (60%), respectively [15].

Dismantlers of e-waste assume non-neutral seated postures with excessive forward flexion and twisting of the trunk as well as high force exertion from manual use of hammers in the dismantling of non-functional electrical appliances. Collectors of e-waste were often exposed to high force exertion and contact stress as a result of pulling/pushing loaded collection carts over long distances [16].

An alarmingly high prevalence (90%) of work-related MSDs exists among e-waste workers [14] in Agbogbloshie, Ghana. Work-related musculoskeletal disorder symptoms were mostly reported in the lower back (65%), knee (39%), shoulder (37%), upper arm (30%), lower leg (27%) and neck (26%) (14). Prolonged work duration was significantly associated with MSDs, which were also significantly associated with the primary e-waste job category [14].

In addition, evidence of acute injuries such as cuts, lacerations, abrasions and scars were observed in 96.2% of e-waste workers [10]. Scars were prevalent on the skins of 93.6% of workers while 23.1% of workers had burns [10].

Manual dismantling of appliances and open air burning to isolate valuable metals create very harmful ambient conditions [11]. Styrofoam food containers and car tires are often added as fuel to sustain the burning process. These conditions expose child- and adult-workers as well as their family members and the general population to excessive doses of hazardous substances [17]. For example, burning of copper wires results in emission of dioxins and furans [18] while breaking (dismantling) of Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) monitors with rudimentary tools to recover copper and steel, result in the release and inhalation of organic compounds such as flame retardants, formaldehyde and combustion products such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybromated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), furans and dioxins as well as hazardous cadmium dust and other pollutants [18]. Other harmful substances resulting from informal e-waste recycling include oxides of: a) Lead, b) Chromium and c) Mercury, often as toxic fumes, as well as other heavy metal accumulation in water, soil and food [19–22].

Besides the hazardous components being processed, e-waste also produces several toxic by-products likely to affect the health of the adjacent general population [17], particularly children who need more specific protection [5,23,24]. For instance, while still growing, children’s intake of water, air and food as a proportion of body weight is significantly larger compared with adults; thus, considerably increasing the risk of hazardous chemical absorption. Additionally, functional systems such as the: (i) immune system, (ii) digestive system, (iii) reproductive system and (iv) central nervous system are still developing and exposure to toxic substances, by hampering further development, might cause irreversible damage.

E-waste workers at Agbogbloshie are also exposed to high levels of particulate matter [9,11] which predisposes them to a decline in lung function and the risk of developing small airway diseases like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [9].